Robert Hooke Father of Microscopy

Tags:robert hooke achievements,Robert Hooke Father of Microscopy,robert hooke achievements,robert hooke inventions,robert hooke cell theory,

Robert Hooke Father of Microscopy

Date of Birth-Death :(1635-1703)

Country of Birth :UK

Major Discoveries : 

The Cell: first person to coin the word 'cell' to describe the basic unit of life

Defined Hooke's Law: Provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation of a material is proportional to the force applied to it.

Extinction: two hundred and fifty years before Darwin, he realized the true nature of fossils.
Inventions: invented the wheel barometer, Gregorian telescope and greatly improved the compound microscope.
Jupiter: discovered the red spot of Jupiter and was the first person to report the rotation of this giant planet.
Telegraphy: invented a method of telegraphy based on telescopes and proportional signs in the 17th century!
Underwater: invented a diving bell.
Architecture: played a major role in the re-building of London after the Great Fire of 1665. Designed several buildings, one surviving example is Willen Church in Buckinghamshire.

 Writing by the Scientist :Micrographia(1665)

Inventor, physicist, surveyor, astronomer, biologist, artist…Robert Hooke was all these and more. Some say he was the greatest experimental scientist of the seventeenth century. In the course of his work, he collaborated with renowned men of science like Christian Huygens, Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and the great architect, Christopher Wren.  Hooke's early education began at home, under the guidance of his father, a curate (priest). He entered Westminster School at the age of thirteen, and from there went to Oxford, where he came in contact with some of the best scientists in England. Hooke impressed them with his skill at designing experiments and devising instruments. In 1662, at the age of 28, he was named Curator of Experiments of the newly formed Royal Society of London -- meaning that he was responsible for demonstrating new experiments at the Society's weekly meetings. Hooke accepted the job, even though he knew that the Society had no money to pay him!   Watching living things through the microscope was one of his favorite occupations. He devised a compound microscope for this purpose. One day while observing a cork under a microscope, he saw honeycomb-like structures. They were cells- the smallest units of life. In fact, it was Hooke who coined the term "cell" as the boxlike cells of the cork reminded him of the cells of a monastery.  Perhaps because of his varied interests, Hooke often left experiments unfinished. Others took up where he left off and then claimed sole credit. This sometimes led to quarrels with colleagues. One work that he finished was his book MICROGRAPHIA, a volume that reveals the immense potential of the microscope. It contains fascinating drawings of the things he saw under the microscope. The book also includes, among other things, ideas on gravity, light and combustion that may have helped scientists like Newton while they were developing their own theories on these phenomena. Hooke made valuable contributions to astronomy too. A crater on the moon is named after him in appreciation of his services to this branch of science.

Charles Darwin Gentleman Naturalist

Tags:Charles Darwin Gentleman Naturalist,scientists achievements

Date of Birth-Death : 1809-1882

Country of Birth : UK

Major Discoveries : The theory of natural selection

Writing by the Scientist : Origin of species by means of natural selection(1859)

Born into a wealthy family, Darwin grew up amidst a life of wealth and comfort . His father was a doctor and had similar aspirations for him. It was no surprise therefore that Darwin first studied medicine at Edinburgh. However, it soon became clear to the family, and particularly to young Charles, that he was not cut out for a medical career. He then went to Cambridge to train to become a clergyman . While at Cambridge, Darwin befriended a biology professor John Stevens Henslow, and his interest in zoology and geography grew. An unforeseen opportunity precluded Darwin's plan of becoming a clergyman. He was invited on board the ship, H.M.S. Beagle as a gentleman companion to the captain.
The round-the-world journey on H.M.S.Beagle lasted almost five years. Darwin spent most of these years investigating the geology and life of the lands he visited, especially South America, the Galapagos islands, and Pacific coral reefs. This journey triggered in him, an interest in evolution of life on earth, the diversity in plant and animal life, and how they survived.
Upon his return to England in 1836, Darwin tried to solve the riddles of these observations and the puzzle of how species evolve. He began to develop the theory of evolution that was to make him famous.
Darwin proposed that all life on earth developed gradually over millions of years from a few common ancestors. In other words, the numerous species alive today arose from a single original life form. They developed new characteristics to adjust to different conditions and environments. Those that could not survive perished.
He called this process of evolution - natural selection. All life, he said, is a continuous struggle in which only the fittest can survive. In other words, in the struggle for survival, the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment.
Darwin was the first of the evolutionary biologists. Until then, people believed that the world they lived in, was the same as what God had created thousands of years ago. Darwin’s theories met with fierce opposition, and even though his theories have been questioned and debated upon, “Darwinism” as his theories are called, remain the first ever documentation on how such a variety of species of plants and animals evolved.
Darwin continued to write and publish his works on biology throughout his life. He lived with his wife and children at their home in the village of Downe, fifteen miles from London. In the later years, Darwin was plagued by fatigue and intestinal sickness. He died on 19 April, 1882, and lies buried in Westminster Abbey.

Natural Monopoly Essay

 

 

This paper studies monopoly as an economic category. The research is mainly focused on the distinctive features of natural monopoly as a type of monopolistic structure of the market economy. The author came to the conclusion that the concept of natural monopoly remains to be a disputable issue, since in spite of all advantages of the productive efficiency, in the absence of competition there is a high probability of the abuse of monopoly for the purpose of profit maximization.

In the beginning of new millennium the development of infrastructure, international commercial relations, and information networks inexorably involves creation, and development of the huge international companies. The turnover of the biggest of them exceeds even the gross domestic product of some countries. And there is nothing strange, that such companies hold leading positions on national and international markets, and at times, excluding competitors, become monopolists. 

 

Company has a monopoly, if it is the only supplier of a product, and if it does not have any substitutes. The principal reason for the occurrence of monopoly is barriers at the admission to the market, which do not allow other companies to compete with a monopolist. Such barriers appear in following cases: only one company owns a key resource of manufacture; a government has given exclusive rights for manufacture of certain production to one company; because of the production costs the highest efficiency of output is only possible in the presence of one manufacturer on the market.

The monopolistic market is considered to be the market of the seller. The profits of the manufacturer are in this case guaranteed by the production volume, and by the high prices. Actually, in the given conditions the buyer is always forced to accept the price, which is considerably above cost.

There are very few examples of pure monopoly. It is rather one of the ideal concepts, as far as all companies aspire to full monopoly, but cannot reach it, or reach it only for a certain period. Though, this rule has one exception- natural monopolies. In case of natural monopoly the scale effect allows one monopolist to serve all market, having costs lower, than in the presence of two or more competing managing subjects in the given market. Such monopolist uses its resources the most effectively. Being a large enterprise, it possesses high technical equipment and big capacity. These factors conduct to the higher labor productivity and the decrease of the product unit costs. Thanks to the lowest possible cost price of the manufacture of the given goods, natural monopoly is a desirable phenomenon for a society. Otherwise the government interferes for the purpose of regulation of the monopolists activity. Practically, the natural monopoly can be resulted by availability of unique property (power supply systems, pipeline and rail transport, unique natural resources, post), necessary for branches, where long-term average costs are minimum only in case, when the market is served by one manufacturer.

The naturalness of monopoly can be determined by its attitude, or to be more precise, by its fear of competition. Genuine natural monopoly knows, that size matters, and if competitors enter the market, they will not manage to seize the greater share. A typical example of all mentioned above are railways in Sweden. The government of this country conducted a classical vertical division into an infrastructure and rail transportation, and the free competition in the market of transportation was allowed. For 10 years the new companies managed to win from monopoly only about 10 % of the market. The scale effect protects monopoly better than any entry restrictions.

Monopolies have natural advantages in those markets, where the action of entire branch as a single mechanism is important. Though, such situation can has its disadvantages. Companies have no stimulus for self-restriction of monopolistic abuse, since the client cannot leave them for other competitors on the market. It often leads to such inevitable consequences, as overpricing, uneconomical treatment of expenses, indifference to the requirements of the clients, artificial understating of the production volume, and a full set of other consequences of the monopoly, accompanied by ultrahigh monopolistic profit earning. Such conditions indicate the classical fiasco of the market, the contradictions, which the market is not able to overcome without state intervention. For this reason in all countries natural monopolies are either state companies, or are under tight state control.

World practice of the state regulation of natural monopolies has more than a century of history. In the USA, first federal control commissions were set up in ХІХ century. For example, the Federal Power Commission was organized in 1930. Today in the USA under the state regulation remain such spheres of natural monopolies, as railway, aviation and other types of transport; a number of fuel and energy manufactures (gas supply, power generation); rendering of numerous public services. State regulation concerns mainly those aspects of business activities in these areas, which make a direct impact on the interests of the consumers: price-level, production volume, bounds of the outlets, requirements to the quality of the goods and services. The most widespread method is that the prices of certain goods and services are established by state structures.

Conclusion 
Natural monopoly in the market economy is considered to be a contradictory phenomena. As a type of monopolistic structure, it combines all negative displays of market monopolization, and can result the abuse of the unlimited market power. At the same time, acting as a necessary element of the production process, and representing socially significant branches of the national economy, the natural monopoly plays the important positive role in the market economy. The state regulation of natural monopolies should be aimed first of all at the termination or control of price growth of the natural monopolies production on the domestic market, and simultaneous preservation of these prices at the level, which allows extended reproduction. In this case the national policy can ensure further prosperity of both monopolies and citizens of the country.

 

General Education Requirements Essay

The general education requirement is the set of courses which must be completed in order to give students a wide range of knowledge in a specific area. In order for students to specialize in a given field they must first gain basic awareness and understanding of the main principles within the art or science they aim to pursue. General education courses usually prepare students for further study by laying down the foundations of the area of knowledge and exercising skills which will prove necessary for continued learning.

Two such courses are those offered by the university of Kansas and Catawba College. The courses are of a similar nature and offer a basis for English language studies. Catawba College’s English 1103 course is a part of the general education writing program meant to provide a background in critical reading and writing. The course gives students the opportunity to get acquainted with rhetorical thinking and to use it in their analytical reading approach as well as when creating texts.

As part of a general education course in language studies the English 1103 also aims to enhance the understanding of students when reading texts. The course gives students the necessary knowledge to handle academic writing styles and gather and appropriately quote the required information from both electronic and print sources. Other fundamental knowledge covered includes organization and structure of writing, punctuation, style, diction, and use of language. (The General Education Writing Program, Catawba College)

A similar course offered by the University of Kansas is English 102. The classes, like the ones provided by Catawba, are meant to give students the necessary tools for academic writing and understanding of texts. Kansas’s English 102 includes knowledge on quotation mechanisms as well as a deep understanding and knowledge of at least one system of documentation. The course is meant to teach students how to explore various topics with the process of writing and how to use it as a tool for deepened understanding. Students are expected to learn how to collaborate on an academic level and conduct research as well as how to use and understand language in a flexible way. The course includes a research element, meant to encourage students to apply their knowledge as well as gain experience. (Goals for English 102, Kansas University)

Both the English 1103 and the English 102 general education courses have a similar content and offer the skills necessary for students to adequately use language and writing. The structure of both courses provides attendees with knowledge of basic academic writing principles such as quotation and research practices, critical approaches toward texts and written expression skills. In order to prepare students for further studies, or simply give them a good foundation in language knowledge, both courses develop skills for understanding written texts. Both courses use summary or synthesis as a tool for enhanced understanding, and build on that foundation in order to enable students to develop their own argumentation and critical thinking. Once a student is able to properly understand writing, select the appropriate language tools, and conform to quotation requirements, they should be able to create appropriate academic writing.

Essay on Adult Learning

Tags:Essay on Adult Learning,Adult Learning,Essay on Adult Learning.


The importance of providing opportunities for adult learning, including tuition reimbursement, is frequently underestimated in business settings. However, doing so is crucial for long-term success of any company. There are three major reasons behind this, and each of them will be dealt with in greater detail in the subsequent paragraphs. Highlighting them very briefly, they are linked with the issues of organizational efficiency, employee retention, and attraction of top talent. First of all, highly skilled workforce is the major determinant of company’s productivity and competitiveness. Although this argument might seem commonplace and self-evident, it is ignored by human resource managers far too often to be easily discarded. Secondly, a company that invests in human capital and offers opportunities for self-development to its workers is likely to see its internal branding efforts enhanced: if employees perceive their company as a place where they can learn and grow, a stronger commitment and psychological alignment with goals of the company will emerge. In the end, internal branding results in lover turnover rates and consequently less time and resources spent on hiring and training new employees.

As Jones (2001) rightly observes, offering support for continuous learning of employees is a practice established many companies with a view to “enhancing both their educational opportunities and prestige, both of which also help to retain top employees” (p. 43). Finally, allocating time for adult learning and supporting workers who engage in it, financially and otherwise, advances company’s external branding efforts. In the global war for talent, corporations go to great lengths to attract the best graduates. Most of such graduates care about self-development opportunities their potential employers have to offer.




While all the claims presented above seem plausible, they are also backed by a growing body of empirical evidence. Starting with the first argument, increasing the overall level of employees’ education is likely to give a company competitive advantage over its rivals. Adult education opportunities “enhance productivity, profits, and global competitiveness as workers apply their education to the marketplace” (Jones, 2001, p. 43). Investing in company’s intellectual capital will have a bearing on employees’ problem-solving skills, their ability to deliver quality customer service, and many other related areas. In the third millennium, it is “clear that in many enterprises the value is not in the tangible assets but in the intangible ones” (Brooking, 1996, p. 11). While the concept of intangible assets is broad and encompasses such things as systems, brands, and intellectual property, employees’ knowledge and competencies form the core element of intangible capital of successful companies.

Moreover, given the rapidly changing technological environment, acquisition of new skills becomes an imperative in many industries that rely on the extensive use of ICTs. Continuous learning is an absolute prerequisite for employees’ ability to keep up with technological trends. As Barley (1998) rightly observe, “[t]he shortage of knowledgeable workers in technical areas and rapid advances in technology have energized adult learning in the United States” (p. ii). An effective workforce is not only knowledgeable but also adaptable. This consideration is of particular importance in an organization like mine. Each employee of the Aviation Communication Center should be able to quickly and competently react to any kind of situation and adapt to using different types of technological solutions. Therefore, it is important to ensure that “education is proactive, anticipating and shaping the future” (Jones, 2001, p. 43) rather than merely reactive to past or existing problems.

The second reason why adult learning in corporate settings is important is associated with the issue of psychological contract employees develop with their organizations. The term “psychological contract” is used to denote mutual expectations employees and managers have of each other and informal beliefs and relationships that exist between them. If employees expect their companies to invest in their self-development, a failure to do so on the part of the company can lead to a breach of the psychological contract, which in turn might have devastating consequence for operational performance of the company.

Under a quite different scenario, a company that clearly communicates its policy to provide opportunities for adult learning and offer support to those who are unable to bear the costs associated with education themselves can both attract and retain qualified workforce. While the issue of attracting talent will be discussed later, the impact adult learning opportunities can have on employee retention will be discussed here. The negative consequences of high turnover are well-known to any human resource manager. In order to decrease or even avoid turnover, it is necessary to ensure that alignment of personal goals, values, mission and vision of every employee and that of the company is taking place. This is achieved best if employees perceive their company as a “caring organization”: such organizations ensure that their employees are given the possibility to advance their knowledge and acquire new skills on a continuous basis. Thus, possibilities for adult learning “provide added incentives for employees to stay where they are rather than leave for a rival company or even another country” (Jones, 2001, p. 43).

Finally, making time and allocating financial resources for continuous education is likely to attract the most energetic, motivated, and goal-oriented employees. Every career-minded person arrives to a new company with a certain vision of his or her future progress. Experience together with education is the prerequisite of smooth and quick movement up the career ladder. However, employees in most cases find out to be themselves responsible for choosing and paying for their education; a company that helps them with it is likely to look very attractive in the eyes of job-seekers.

Although there might be many more reasons why adult education in corporate settings is a desirable practice, the aforementioned three reasons are significant enough to make any company reconsider its approach to self-development of its employees. Firstly, increasing the overall level of education of the workforce enhances company’s competitive standing. Continuous acquisition of new skills and competencies is indispensable in the rapidly changing technological environment. Secondly, employee retention has been found to be unambiguously linked to educational opportunities companies have to offer. Finally, attraction of top talent becomes easier if a company provides potential employees with a clear plan for their future career progression.

Tags:Essay on Adult Learning,Adult Learning,Essay on Adult Learning.

essay on Corruption in India

Tags:essay on Corruption in India , Corruption in India, Corruption,essay,essay on corruption,Corruption In India,Corruption,Corruption.

Corruption is today a world-wide phenomenon. In our own country some people in high positions lave been charged for it.

A corrupt person is termed immoral, dishonest and unscrupulous in his dealings. His disregard for honesty, righteousness and truth results in his alienation from society. He is treated with contempt. But as erosion of values leads to decadence, remedies for the social malaise remain elusive, and so no amount of contempt can eradicate corruption which is a symptom of decadence.

Corruption is the most virulent when crises everywhere threaten the very existence of the society and the faith in life is shaken. It has always been there like tie leech, but when the system grows weaker and the boat flounders, it gets bolder and drains its victims of the last drops of their blood.

The older the system the weaker it grows and fails to solve the riddles of life that grows more complex every day. So men lose faith in it and let it drift down. At this point corruption takes over and plunges the entire society. After Second World War the old system with all its values was left in a shambles. The crippling effects of the war, the recession and depression, and uncertainties in a faithless world of maimed and moribund encouraged cynicism in a section of the population.

This section included the government officials dealing in essential commodities. They found the post-war conditions ideal for fishing in troubled waters and jetting richer. They formed a sort of vicious circle in which moral values and honest intentions no longer held valid. The flourishing black market in essential commodities, adulteration of even baby- food, bribery, fraud and economic, political and administrative manipulations with an eye on earning profits has brought untold misery to the people.

One would say the corruption in India has an ancient lineage; it is sanctified by tradition. The author of the Arthasastra made some remarks on government officials of his time which are relevant even today: "Just as it is impossible not to taste the honey or the poison that finds itself at the tip of the tongue, so it is impossible for a government servant not to eat up at least a bit of the king's revenue. These in the post­war world became only bolder while eating up government money and accepting bribes.

Today, when India is free, these officials representing all government departments are very close to the most corrupt businessmen who are too unscrupulous to let any opportunity of amassing profits slip. This collusion broadens the base of the vicious circle and corruption spreads 'like wild fire to engulf the entire society. The political and social guardians depend only too much on the richer communities and they look indulgently on while these communities hold the entire society and the government to ransom.

Corruption starts at the top and percolates down to the whole society. Such corruption cannot be confined to the towns alone. It is as widespread in the villages where the dishonest officials and the traders carry the germs of the disease. The tyranny of confusion and price rules the land and the people are helpless victims of corruption everywhere.

PECET Results

Tags:PECET 2012 Exam Results,Physical Education Common Entrance Test- PECET 2012  OU PGCET Results 2012

PECET - 2012 RANK CARDS

GROUP-I SERVICES SCREENING TEST RESULTS

Tags: GROUP-I SERVICES SCREENING TEST RESULTS, Group -I Results, Group -I Screening  Results, GROUP-I SERVICES SCREENING TEST RESULTS, Group -I Results, Group -I Screening  Results

Release of list of provisionally qualified candidates for appearing for Main Examination.

It is hereby notified that, on the basis of the Screening test held on 27/05/2012 (Sunday) from 10-30 AM to 1-00 PM for the posts falling under Group-I Services which were notified in Notification No.15/2011 (Limited) and 18/2011 (General), the candidates whose Register Numbers are given below have provisionally qualified for appearing to the Main Examination which will be held from 3rd September 2012 at 5 centers Viz. Hyderabad, Visakahpatnam,  Vijayawada, Tirupathi and Warangal only. 

 The dates for the Main examination are already kept in Commission’s website by giving  required time to candidates to prepare for the main examination. The Hall Tickets for Main  Examination to the qualified candidates will be kept in the Commission’s website separately in due course.

GROUP-I SERVICES SCREENING TEST Results - Download

DSC Telugu Books,Telugu Group II Books

Tags: DSC Telugu Books, Download, DSC Books, Telugu DSC Books Download, Telugu Group II Books Telugu Study Books, Telugu Indian History Books, Telugu Economic Books, Telugu E Books Download, History India Books, Telugu Gk Books Download, Gk Telugu Books Download,E-Books, GK Books, Telugu And English  E-Books, History, Geography, GROUP I and II Study Materials, Chemistry,  

India History.zip  -  Download

History.zip - Download.

  Geography.zip  -  Download.

Economics.zip. - Download

  Chemistry.zip - Download.

Junior Lecturers in Government Junior Colleges General and Limited Recruitment Interview List

Interview List for Notification No. 5/2008 & 19/2008 , Junior Lecturers in Government Junior Colleges General and Limited Recruitment  

Download 

Tags: Junior Lecturers Results,JL Results,Junior Lecturers in Government Junior CollegesInterview List for Notification No.5/2008 , 19/2008,Junior Lecturers in Government Junior Colleges General and Limited Recruitment,JUNIOR LECTURERS IN GOVERNMENT JUNIOR COLLEGES NOTIFICATION NO. 19/2008 AND 5/2008 (General & LimitedRecruitment). RESULT,

VIOLENCE IN THE FAMILY

    The term “violence in the family” refers to male violence against females. It means that men are generally rude to women both physically and psychologically. Concerning this issue, a study has been conducted by Family Research Institute in five different geographic regions of Turkey on married women about husband violence against wives. The results of this survey indicate that two independent variables seem to be related to approval of violence.

One of the variables is the number of children, which affects the women’s approval of male violence in the family. Data on this relationship show a complex link between the two: the number of children influences the intensity with which a woman approves male violence. They increase parallel to each other: while the number of children rises from 1 to 6, the approval percentage rises from 10 to more than 40. The second variable shows the linkage between the age of women and their approval of male violence. As age rises, the degree of approval rises too. However, there is a sharp increase between the ages 35-40 and from 40 onward it continues to rise.

The women’s approval of male violence stems from different factors such as education level of both genders. If men had enough awareness to respect women, violence would be decreased. In the same way, if women were educated, they would have financial independence or at least they would know their rights and would act accordingly. Financial independence gives women the right to divorce. Therefore, a woman who has enough money to support herself and her children does not have to tolerate an unhappy life with her husband who resorts to violence.

Another factor that determines the degree of violence approval is modernization. In other words, traditional values that are observed among women and certain segments of the society are the cause of approval. For example, years ago women could not do anything without asking their husbands first. Although such conservative beliefs seem too old-fashioned to be accepted today, they still apply.

The wicked belief against women who are divorced or widowed is the other factor that has an effect on approval of violence. Women are afraid of becoming a widow because of this common attitude. Lots of men are very merciless in their treatment of women; they treat them as if divorced women are strange creatures or as if they are guilty of some immoral crime. Therefore, women cannot venture a divorce fearing persecution.

As a result, being a woman in Turkey is difficult but being a divorced woman is more difficult than this, so lots of women have to accept and live with their husbands’ violent acts. Something must be done for women but a lot of people think that there are more important issues in the country that need handling. For this problem to be solved, people -without any discrimination- must be educated on women’s rights. It must be accepted in the wider society that women have to be seen as humans not as slaves. Only after people understand this, women will gain the status that they really deserve in the society.

Globalization

Teachers may want to have the students read this introduction before they read the essays on "Globalization" to provide a basic understanding of the concepts included therein.
"Globalization" is a term that came into popular usage in the 1980's to describe the increased movement of people, knowledge and ideas, and goods and money across national borders that has led to increased interconnectedness among the world's populations, economically, politically, socially and culturally. Although globalization is often thought of in economic terms (i.e., "the global marketplace"), this process has many social and political implications as well. Many in local communities associate globalization with modernization (i.e., the transformation of "traditional" societies into "Western" industrialized ones). At the global level, globalization is thought of in terms of the challenges it poses to the role of governments in international affairs and the global economy.
There are heated debates about globalization and its positive and negative effects. While globalization is thought of by many as having the potential to make societies richer through trade and to bring knowledge and information to people around the world, there are many others who perceive globalization as contributing to the exploitation of the poor by the rich, and as a threat to traditional cultures as the process of modernization changes societies. There are some who link the negative aspects of globalization to terrorism. To put a complicated discussion in simple terms, they argue that exploitative or declining conditions contribute to the lure of informal "extremist" networks that commit criminal or terrorist acts internationally. And thanks to today's technology and integrated societies, these networks span throughout the world. It is in this sense that terrorism, too, is "globalized." The essays in this section address some of the complex questions associated with globalization in light of September 11. Before moving to these essays, consider the discussion below about some of the economic, political, social and cultural manifestations of globalization.

Economic manifestations of globalization
Increasingly over the past two centuries, economic activity has become more globally oriented and integrated. Some economists argue that it is no longer meaningful to think in terms of national economies; international trade has become central to most local and domestic economies around the world.
Among the major industrial economies, sometimes referred to as the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, 65 percent of the total economic production, or GDP, is associated with international trade. Economists project that, in the U.S., more than 50 percent of the new jobs created in this decade will be directly linked to the global economy.
The recent focus on the international integration of economies is based on the desirability of a free global market with as few trade barriers as possible, allowing for true competition across borders.
International economic institutions, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), facilitate this increasingly barrier-free flow of goods, services, and money (capital) internationally. Regionally, too, organizations like the North America Free Trade Association (NAFTA), the European Union (EU), and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) work towards economic integration within their respective geographical regions.
Many economists assess economic globalization as having a positive impact, linking increased economic transactions across national borders to increased world GDP, and opportunities for economic development. Still, the process is not without its critics, who consider that many of the economies of the industrial North (i.e., North America, Europe, East Asia) have benefited from globalization, while in the past two decades many semi- and non-industrial countries of the geo-political South (i.e., Africa, parts of Asia, and Central and South America) have faced economic downturns rather than the growth promised by economic integration. Critics assert that these conditions are to a significant extent the consequence of global restructuring which has benefited Northern economies while disadvantaging Southern economies. Others voice concern that globalization adversely affects workers and the environment in many countries around the world.
Discontent with the perceived disastrous economic and social manifestations of globalization has led to large and growing demonstrations at recent intergovernmental meetings, including meetings of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the Group of Eight (G8) leading industrial countries.

Political manifestations of globalization
Globalization has impacts in the political arena, but there is not a consensus among social scientists about the nature and degree of its impact on national and international politics. Some political scientists argue that globalization is weakening nation-states and that global institutions gradually will take over the functions and power of nation-states. Other social scientists believe that while increased global inter-connectivity will result in dramatic changes in world politics, particularly in international relations (i.e., the way states relate to each other), the nation-state will remain at the center of international political activity.
Political theorists and historians often link the rise of the modern nation-state (in Europe and North America in the nineteenth century and in Asia and Africa in the twentieth century) with industrialization and the development of modern capitalist and socialist economies. These scholars also assert that the administrative structures and institutions of the modern nation-state were in part responsible for the conditions that led to industrial expansion. Moreover, industrial development brought with it social dislocations that necessitated state intervention in the form of public education and social "safety nets" for health care, housing, and other social services. Consequently, the development of the contemporary nation-state, nationalism, inter-state alliances, colonization, and the great wars of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were in part political manifestations of changes in the structure of economic production.
It follows from this argument that in the era of globalization, with its significant changes in global economic relations, the nineteenth and twentieth century model of the nation-state may become obsolete. The economic orientation of the modern nation-state has been centered on national economic interests, which may often conflict with the global trend towards the free and rapid movement of goods, services, finance, and labor. These processes give rise to the question of whether the modern nation-state can survive in its present form in the new global age. Is it adaptable, or will it gradually be replaced by emerging multinational or regional political entities?
Changes in political structure and practices resulting from economic globalization are only a partial explanation of changes in world politics in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. International relations and world politics in the second half of the twentieth century were strongly informed by another global factor - the Cold War (i.e., the ideological struggle between the Western nations, the United States and its allies, and the Eastern Bloc, the Soviet Union and China and their allies). The early and most intense years of the Cold War in the 1950s and 1960s coincided with the de-colonization of Asia and Africa and the creation of more than 70 new nation-states. Many of the new nation-states of Africa and Asia had based their struggle for independence on the principles of freedom, justice and liberty - principles espoused by both the Eastern and Western blocks. The economic, political, and ideological competition between East and West had fertile ground in these newly independent nation-states. Although the "cold war" never developed into a "hot war" of actual military conflict in Europe or North America, civil wars within and wars between new nation-states in Africa and Asia were fueled and supported by Cold War tensions. Major conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, Congo, Angola, Mozambique, and Somalia are examples of regional conflicts that were fueled by the Cold War.
To some experts, the demise of the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc a decade ago promised a new era of world peace and increased openness. The processes of globalization accelerated as goods, ideas and people flowed more freely across borders in the post-Cold War political environment. In place of policies of containment, the international community fostered policies of openness to trade and based on the principles of democracy and rights.
With such increased openness, multilateral organizations, and in particular the United Nations (UN), have changed their focus from maintaining the balance of power between the East and West to a more global approach to peacekeeping/peace-building, development, environmental protection, protection of human rights, and the maintenance of the rule of law internationally. The creation of legal institutions like the international criminal tribunals that have sprung up in the past decade, as well as the proliferation of major international conferences aiming to address global problems through international cooperation, have been referred to as proof of political globalization. Still, since all of these institutions rely on the participation of nation-states and respect the fundamental principle of national sovereignty, the extent to which these institutions exhibit true political globalization continues to be debated.

Social and cultural manifestations of globalization
Though there are many social and cultural manifestations of globalization, here are some of the major ones:

• Informational services: The past two decades have seen an internationalization of information services involving the exponential expansion of computer-based communication through the Internet and electronic mail. On the one hand, the electronic revolution has promoted the diversification and democratization of information as people in nearly every country are able to communicate their opinions and perspectives on issues, local and global, that impact their lives. Political groups from Chiapas to Pakistan have effectively used information technology to promote their perspectives and movements. On the other hand, this expansion of information technology has been highly uneven, creating an international "digital divide" (i.e., differences in access to and skills to use Internet and other information technologies due predominantly to geography and economic status). Often, access to information technology and to telephone lines in many developing countries is controlled by the state or is available only to a small minority who can afford them..
  
• News services: In recent years there has been a significant shift in the transmission and reporting of world news with the rise of a small number of global news services. This process has been referred to as the "CNN-ization of news," reflecting the power of a few news agencies to construct and disseminate news. Thanks to satellite technology, CNN and its few competitors extend their reach to even the most geographically remote areas of the world. This raises some important questions of globalization: Who determines what news What is "newsworthy?" Who frames the news and determines the perspectives articulated? Whose voice(s) are and are not represented? What are the potential political consequences of the silencing of alternative voices and perspectives?
  
• Popular culture: The contemporary revolution in communication technology has had a dramatic impact in the arena of popular culture. Information technology enables a wide diversity of locally-based popular culture to develop and reach a larger audience. For example, "world music" has developed a major international audience. Old and new musical traditions that a few years ago were limited to a small local audience are now playing on the world stage.
  

On the other hand, globalization has increased transmission of popular culture easily and inexpensively from the developed countries of the North throughout the world. Consequently, despite efforts of nationally-based media to develop local television, movie, and video programs, many media markets in countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America are saturated with productions from the U.S., Europe and a few countries in Asia (especially Japan and India). Local critics of this trend lament not only the resulting silencing of domestic cultural expression, but also the hegemonic reach of Western, "alien" culture and the potential global homogenization of values and cultural taste.

New War?

I. Introduction to "New War?" Theme

Teachers may want to have the students read this introduction before they read the selected essays on "New War?" to provide a basic understanding of the concepts included therein.
In his first major address to the nation after the events of September 11th, President George Bush declared war on terrorism and those who support it. He said that this would be a new type of war, unlike any that the United States had fought in the past.
Authors of the essays in this section ask the question whether this engagement really is a new type of war, and if so, what are the new characteristics of this war. They investigate multiple causes of this transformation: advances in military technology, changes brought about by the post-Cold War era, impacts of US domestic politics, and new types of engagement required to fight terrorists.
As background for exploring these questions, it is useful to define the characteristics of "conventional warfare" as it was known throughout much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Conventional warfare required the direct engagement on land, sea, and/or air of two or more military forces. Conventional wars were either between nation-states or were civil wars between the established government of a nation-state and dissident group(s) within that country.

1. Technologies and the New War
Technology is one of the major contributing factors to the shift in the way that wars are waged today. For armed networks around the world, like Al Qaeda, improved information and communications technology offer the means for these groups to organize across borders or from different corners of the world. And it is based on these global communication systems that they can raise money through illegal trading in drugs, illegal immigrants, illicit remittances from members of the networks throughout the world, etc. It is also through information technology and the global media that these networks can gain strategic information about countries like the United States that was not so accessible in years past.
It is not only armed networks that use information technology to their advantage. Governments throughout the world use technology for intelligence purposes. For example, satellites can be used to determine the location of enemy camps, criminal bank accounts can be monitored, and developments in other countries can be observed through news media there. Likewise, as will be discussed further in the essays, leaders use communications media to influence populations' views of events, and movies and television programs can add legitimacy to particular political positions.
Some experts also consider that advanced nation-states, which are dependent on technology for everyday life, are especially vulnerable to having their own technology used against them. In the new age of "virtual war," hackers could attempt attacks on anything that relies on information technology to function -- from water supplies to banking systems - potentially wreaking havoc in a given country. The question remains whether terrorist networks possess the high level of expertise necessary to commit these acts.
Advanced countries, especially the United States have used technology to improve their defense systems. The development of "smart weapons" means that forces can exact tremendous damage on their opponents with only minimal loss of their personnel because they use advanced technology to avoid direct engagement. This type of high-tech warfare was first demonstrated in the Persian Gulf War fought by the US in 1991 and was fine-tuned in the US engagement in the wars in Bosnia and Kosovo in the mid- to late-1990s. And by all accounts, smart weapons were militarily very effective in Afghanistan, the first phase of President Bush's declared war against global terrorism.
The great reduction in the potential for US casualties by using smart weapons has significantly affected public opinion about US military engagement, and has minimized domestic opposition. Now the US can more easily use force - or the threat of force - internationally.
However, the use of smart weapons raises important ethical questions. The Geneva Conventions (i.e., a group of four treaties, or written contracts, adopted in 1949 which govern all nation-states' treatment of members of the military, civilians and prisoners in times of war) call for the protection of civilian non-combatants. In conventional warfare where two armed forces are directly engaged, the ethics of warfare recognize that soldiers will kill soldiers but condemns harming civilians. This principle brings the use of smart bombs into question, since even with their increasing accuracy, smart weapons targeted by distant combatants and dropped from high-altitude aircraft occasionally miss their mark and kill or injure civilian non-combatants, or may cause "collateral damage" (i.e., killing or injuring civilians and/or damaging civilian objects) even when they directly hit their target.

2. Political Realities and the New War

Both global and domestic politics in the post-Cold War era shape the type of wars that are now being fought and are likely to be fought in the coming decades.
In terms of international politics, the convergence of the easing of bi-polar tension at the end of the Cold War with the expansion of globalization has greatly reduced the likelihood of a major nuclear confrontation or a war that would engage most of the major nations of the world. However, at the same time, there has been a surge in informal and privatized armed forces causing considerable instability in various countries and regions of the world. While their objectives range from conflict to conflict, it is increasingly apparent that these groups rely on international funding/trade and global crime networks to survive.
Domestically, the past decades have witnessed a growing ambivalence on the part of the US policy makers and the US public regarding the US's role in global politics. While there is a bi-partisan agreement by the majority of the US public, according to public opinion polls, in support of active US engagement in the global economy, no such consensus exists regarding US engagement in global politics. Indeed, several scholars and commentators have noted an isolationist tendency in the US. On the military front, this has surfaced in the reluctance of the US, as the sole superpower, to become militarily involved in conflicts in other areas of the world except in cases where US national interests are clearly and directly affected. However, as discussed above, the development of technologically sophisticated weapons that inflict fewer casualties and place many fewer US combatants at risk has increased the willingness of the US public to become militarily engaged in foreign conflicts.

3. New War and Global Terrorism
As will be expanded upon in the selected essays, neither global terrorism nor the declared war on terrorism fits the norms of conventional warfare, as described above. Global terrorism is executed by small, secretive, and often invisible networks of individuals who are not identified with a particular nation-state. While these "non-state actors" (i.e., those entities that are not official arms of recognized nation-states or governments) networks often have defined political objectives, they are not directly associated with the traditional type of national objectives. For example, the Al Qaeda network does not seek to take over a particular nation or government, nor does it target the military defeat of a particular government of a nation. Moreover, its armed units are not organized into traditional armies and do not engage their enemy with conventional strategies and tactics.
Thus, the new war on global terrorism by necessity will differ from conventional warfare. Because the enemy is not a nation-state, victory cannot be achieved by defeating an opposing government, even when it may be deemed necessary - as in the case of Afghanistan - to defeat a regime that collaborates with terrorists. While a combination of high-tech weaponry and strong support for internal forces opposing the Taliban led to the defeat of that regime, it is questionable that the same military strategy can be used effectively to destroy the capability of Al Qaeda and other networks. Alternative technologies and strategies will need to be employed if global terrorism is to be defeated.

Terrorism and Democratic Virtues

Tags:Educational Tools, Globalization Essay, Better Essays, FREE Essays,essay globalization advantages disadvantages  globalization essay topics  sample essay globalization  research paper globalization  globalization summary  effects of globalization  advantages globalization  impact of globalization,Dvr-Educational Tools,dvr Educational Tools ,Educational Tools

I. Introduction to "Terrorism and Democratic Virtues"

Those that can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety deserve neither liberty nor safety.
Benjamin Franklin, Historical Review of Pennsylvania, 1759

In the days and weeks following September 11, both the executive and legislative branches proposed various national security measures aimed at reducing the risk of future attacks on the US at home and abroad. While there was general support among the American public for improved protections against further attack, various proponents of civil and human rights have voiced concern that too many rights and freedoms might be limited in the name of national security. In this section, we explore various aspects of these government responses to September 11.

Democracy, liberties and rights - some definitions

Directly translated from Greek, democracy means 'rule by the people.' In modern democracies, citizens retain the ultimate political authority, although routine decision-making is often delegated to representatives at the federal and state levels. Many leading social scientists have recognized that there is tension between democracy and liberty, since the majority in a given country could vote to limit the liberties and rights of the minority in that country. It is because the drafters of the United States Constitution recognized this potential problem that they provided safeguards against such abuses of power by the majority, including provisions for the protection of inalienable individual rights, and the division of powers among the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Still, history shows that this system is not foolproof. For example, the rights of African Americans were limited, particularly in the Southern states of the United States until 1954.
Civil rights and civil liberties in the United States are founded on the principles contained in the Bill of Rights. These principles protect citizens from unwarranted interference by the government or other individuals at the same time that they identify the government's role in providing equal protection under law to all citizens regardless of race, religion, sex, or other characteristics unrelated to the worth of the individual. Many of the constitutional amendments protect civil liberties, including freedom from arbitrary arrest or detention; freedom of speech; freedom of lawful assembly; and freedom of association and movement. Other amendments define a government role in ensuring fair and equal treatment under the law, including the right to a fair trial; the right not to incriminate oneself in a legal proceeding; and the right to equal access to public facilities (e.g., schools, public housing and polling places).
Human rights echo many of the principles upheld by civil rights in the United States, although these two terms cannot be used interchangeably. A very basic definition for human rights is "those basic standards without which people cannot live in dignity". Rights for all members of the human family were first articulated in 1948 in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The 30 articles of the Declaration together form a comprehensive statement covering economic, social, cultural, political, and civil rights. The document is both universal (it applies to all people everywhere) and indivisible (all rights are equally important to the full realization of one's humanity). These rights are more comprehensive in scope than those articulated in the US Constitution, which generally address only civil and political rights, with little attention to the other economic, social and cultural rights included on the international human rights agenda.

The United States' history of limited rights in times of crisis
The United States government has denied the rights and freedoms of certain populations in the face of a perceived threat at different times in its history. The Alien and Sedition Acts, adopted in 1789 during the administration of President John Adams, came at a time of controversy over the U.S. role in the conflict between England and France immediately after the French Revolution. These acts defined criticism of the president as "sedition" (i.e., inciting rebellion) and provided for extra-judicial deporting of legal resident aliens if the administration considered them to be a security threat. During this period, several newspapers were closed, and "threatening" non-citizens were forced to leave the country.
During the Civil War, on several occasions President Abraham Lincoln suspended habeas corpus (designed to ensure that people who have been imprisoned have not been unlawfully arrested) without Congressional approval. He also closed newspapers that he considered to be seditious.
During World War I, President Woodrow Wilson urged Congress to adopt the Espionage Act, under which his administration sent more than 1000 people to jail for speaking out against the war and the military draft. Some, like socialists Eugene Debs and Rose Stokes, were imprisoned for as long as 10 years. After the war, attacks on dissidents intensified due to a rising fear that radicals might be inspired by the Russian Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. Six thousand people in the U.S. were seized during the "Palmer Raids" of 1918-1921 (named after Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer), many of them aliens who had fewer rights than citizens.
During World War II, President Franklin Roosevelt approved the detention of more than 120,000 people of Japanese descent, more than two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens.
The Alien Registration Act of 1940 (the "Smith Act") was the first statute since the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 to make advocacy of ideas a federal crime. During the Cold War era, this Act was used to imprison people believed to be leaders of the Communist Party. Moreover, Senator Joe McCarthy of Wisconsin attacked many civil servants, writers and artists working in Hollywood and elsewhere, journalists, and others for their supposed activities in the Communist Party during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Many were "blacklisted" so they could not find work.
During the Vietnam War, anti-war activists (and some civil rights activists) were subjected to considerable surveillance and secret "dirty tricks" conducted under the FBI's domestic COINTELPRO (counter intelligence programs). During recent decades, the previous excessive curtailments of rights of critics of wartime have been largely repudiated.

Current policies that have raised concern in the United States
Citing the increased threat of terrorism from actors inside and outside the United States, Congress enacted the USA PATRIOT Act ("Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism," originally termed the Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001) on October 24, 2001. Civil liberties advocates have criticized numerous provisions of this bill as well as the lack of adequate debate before its adoption.
These critics are concerned by numerous provisions of the Act, which weaken rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights. The USA PATRIOT Act creates a new, very loosely-defined crime of "domestic terrorism," breaking down the distinction between foreign-intelligence and domestic criminal investigations - a distinction that has been maintained until now to protect against government intrusion into citizens' private lives. It allows secret searches and wiretapping of telephones for an investigation whose primary purpose is gathering intelligence for a criminal investigation of U.S. citizens and non-citizens without establishing probable cause that a crime has occurred. (For more information, see http://www.aclu.org/congress/archives.html#ns).
Most civil liberties advocates do not contest the notion that additional investigative methods may be needed to address extraordinary threats of terrorism. They are concerned about the broader and longer-term implications of reducing legal rights in response to acts of terrorism. Because of the extremely broad definition of "domestic terrorism," there is grave concern that the new law will be used not only against suspected foreign terrorists but also against people engaged in civil disobedience against the World Trade Organization and other international financial institutions, at the U.S. naval base in Vieques, Puerto Rico, or at clinics that perform abortions. They contend that the fight against international terrorism is being used as a way to "normalize" greater powers of surveillance, intelligence-gathering, and arrest.

Reduction of rights for immigrants
Following September 11, immigrants have suffered a dramatic decrease of rights. For example, one provision of the USA PATRIOT Act gave the government the authority to detain immigrants for repeatedly extended six-month periods. An Executive Order issued by Attorney General Ashcroft on the same day that the Act was passed equipped his department with the authority to keep immigrants in detention even if a federal immigration judge has already ordered the release of the individual for lack of evidence. Since September 11, more than 1180 Arab or Muslim men have been detained. As of the posting of this teaching resource, the Justice Department would not release the names of the detainees and would not reveal the number of people who have been detained. Many have been held without charge for months, without access to a lawyer. The vast majority of charges have been minor immigration violations, such as overstaying an expired visa. The Justice Department has sought to interview 5000 immigrant men aged 18-33 from the Middle East who entered the U.S. after January 1, 2000. Justice Department officials have argued that this does not constitute "racial profiling" because their definition is based on national origin, not ethnicity or religion.
Civil rights advocates voice concern that the founding principles of the United States are being jeopardized by these policies as minorities and immigrant groups are targeted by the government. Current US behavior that have raised concern abroad
While civil liberties advocates have focused on infringement of rights guaranteed to people in the United States by the Constitution, foreign policy commentators have raised concerns that the U.S. government is not promoting democracy and human rights in its foreign policy. For the last 25 years, the U.S. government has included advocacy of human rights and promotion of democracy in its foreign policy pronouncements. However, some of the countries that are members of the coalition for the war on terrorism have very poor human rights records. For example, the United States has made partnerships with Uzbekistan, where Muslims had been imprisoned for violation of religious laws, and Pakistan, where the leader has not been elected democratically, and there are regular accounts of serious human rights violations. (For more, see Human Rights Watch's report at http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/september11).
Many U.S. allies have begun to raise questions about the United States' dedication to international human rights. In January 2002, there was a rising chorus of concern about U.S. treatment of prisoners from the war in Afghanistan who were taken to the U.S. military base in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. They have not had access to lawyers and are held in wire cages, which are violations of international law.
The terrorist attacks of September 11 have heightened many Americans' awareness of the democratic principles that they value. At the same time, the war on terrorism has shifted the balance between civil liberties and security, putting some of those core values at risk. The challenge is to mount a domestic and international response to terrorism that is effective but that does not, in the long-run, compromise basic human rights in the U.S. or internationally.

జనరల్ స్టడీస్ మార్కులకు జీవం పోసే జనరల్ సైన్స్

ఆంధ్రప్రదేశ్ పబ్లిక్ సర్వీసు కమిషన్ నిర్వహిస్తున్న అన్ని రకాల పోటీ పరీక్షలలో జనరల్ స్టడీస్ తప్పనిసరి సబ్జెక్ట్‌గా ఉంటున్నది. అదే విధంగా పోలీస్ రిక్రూట్‌మెంట్ బోర్డ్, విద్యా శాఖ, ఇంజనీరింగ్ తదితర డిపార్ట్‌మెంట్స్ నిర్వహించే పోటీ పరీక్షలలో కూడా జనరల్ స్టడీస్ ఒక సబ్జెక్ట్‌గా ఉండడం వల్ల పోటీ పరీక్షలకు ప్రిపేరవుతున్న అభ్యర్ధులు జనరల్ స్టడీస్‌ను శాస్త్రీయ పద్దతిలో ప్రణాళికాబద్ధంగా అధ్యయనం చేయాలి. నిజానికి జనరల్ స్టడీస్ సిలబస్ పరంగా పరిమితంగా ఉన్నప్పటికి పరిధి మాత్రం అపరిమితం. అందువల్ల ఎన్ని సం॥ పాటు ఎంత చదివినా ఇంకా తెలియని విషయాలు చాలా ఉంటాయి. అందువల్ల పరీక్ష కోణంలో ముఖ్యమైన అంశాలను గుర్తించడం, ప్రశ్నల సరళిని పరిశీలించడం, నిపుణుల సలహాలు తీసుకోవడంతో (అవకాశం ఉంటే కోచింగ్ తీసుకోవడం), పాటు ప్రామాణికమైన పుస్తకాలను ఎంపిక చేసుకొని సమగ్రంగా ప్రిపేర్ అయితే జనరల్ స్టడీస్‌పై పట్టు సాధించడం వీలవుతుంది. జనరల్ స్టడీస్ ఒక సముద్రం లాంటిది ఎంత చదివినా ఉపయోగం తక్కువనే అపోహ ఉంది. కాని సముద్రంలో మనకు కావలసిన చేపలను మాత్రమే (ముఖ్యమైన అంశాల ను) గుర్తించగలిగే స్మార్ట్ వర్క్ అవసరం. జనరల్ స్టడీస్ జీవి తంలో మనకు తెలియని అనేక విషయాలను వివరిస్తుంది కాబట్టి దీనిని ఇష్టంతో, సృజనాత్మక దృష్టితో చూడగలిగితే ఎక్కువ మార్కులు పొందవచ్చు.జనరల్ స్టడీస్‌లో జనరల్‌సైన్స్ అత్యంత కీలకమైన విభాగం. ఈ విభాగం నుండి సుమారు 30 నుండి 35 ప్రశ్నలు రావడానికి అవకాశముంది. పోటీపరీక్షలకు ప్రిపేరవుతున్న అభ్యర్ధులలో ఎక్కువ మంది ఈ విభాగం గురించి భయపడ తారు. నిజానికి ఈ విభాగంలో అంశాలను భావనాత్మకంగా, తార్కికంగా హేతుబద్దంగా ఒకసారి అర్ధం చేసుకోగలిగితే ఎక్కువ కాలం పాటు గుర్తుంటాయి. అదే విధంగా పరోక్షంగా వచ్చే ప్రశ్నలకు కూడా సమాధానాలను సులభంగా గుర్తించ వచ్చు. అందువల్ల సైన్స్ నేపథ్యం లేని అభ్యర్ధులు జనరల్ సైన్స్‌ను జనరల్‌గా చదివినా కూడా అర్ధమవుతుందని గుర్తుంచు కోవాలి. (సిలబస్‌లో కూడా జనరల్‌గా పేర్కొన్నారు). సిలబస్ శాస్త్ర, సాంకేతిక రంగాల్లో సమకాలీన అభివృద్ధి వాటి ప్రభావం, ప్రత్యేకంగా సైన్స్‌ను ఒక అంశంగా చదవకపోయినా విద్యావంతుడైన అభ్యర్ధికి తెలిసి ఉండాల్సిన అనుదిన విజ్ఞాన పరిశీలన, అనుభవ పూర్వక విషయాలపై అవగాహన. జనరల్ సైన్స్ సిలబస్ స్వభావం? జనరల్ సైన్స్ సిలబస్‌లో సమకాలీన విజ్ఞానానికి సంబంధించిన అంశాలను పేర్కొన్నారు. అయితే ఏదైనా ఒక అంశం యొక్క సమకాలీన విషయం. అనువర్తనం అర్ధం కావాలంటే మొదట ఆ అంశానికి సంబంధించిన మౌలిక విషయాలు తెలియాలి కాబట్టి శాస్త్ర సాంకేతిక రంగాలలో సమకాలిన అభివృద్ధిని అర్ధం చేసుకోవాలంటే సైన్స్ మౌలికాం శాలను అధ్యయనం చేయాలి. తరువాత వాటి అనువర్తనాలపై ప్రధానంగా దృష్టి సారించాలి. పరీక్షల్లో కూడా దాదాపు 50శాతం మౌలికాంశాలు. 50శాతం అనువర్త నాంశాలను ప్రత్యక్షంగా, పరోక్షంగా అడగటం జరుగుతుంది. అందువల్ల మౌలికాంశాలకు, అనువర్తనాలకు సమాన ప్రాధాన్యమివ్వాలి. ఏయే విభాగాలకు ఎక్కువ ప్రాముఖ్యం ఇవ్వాలి? జనరల్ సైన్స్‌లో ప్రధానంగా జంతుశాస్త్రం, వృక్షశాస్త్రం, భౌతిక శాస్త్రం, రసాయన శాస్త్రం, సైన్స్ అండ్ టెక్నాలజీ మొదలగు విభాగాలు ఉంటాయి. వీటిలో జంతుశాస్త్రం మరియు భౌతిక శాస్త్రం నుండి ఎక్కువ ప్రశ్నలు వస్తున్నాయి. వీటితోపాటు పర్యావరణ శాస్త్రం, అనువర్తన జీవశాస్త్రం వంటి శాస్త్రాల గురించి కూడా తెలుసుకోవాలి. ఈ విభాగం నుండి వచ్చే మొత్తం 30/35 ప్రశ్నలలో ఈ కింది విధంగా ప్రశ్నలు రావడానికి అవకాశముంది. జంతుశాస్త్రంలో మౌలికమైన అంశాలు? జీవశాస్త్రంలో ముఖ్యమైన విభాగం జంతుశాస్త్రం. ఇందు లో ఏకకణ సరళ జీవి అయిన అమిబా మొదలు మానవుని వరకు అనేక కోట్ల జీవరాశులు ఉంటాయి. జంతు రాజ్యంలో వున్న ప్రధాన శాఖలైన అకశేరుకాలు, సకశేరుకాలు, వాటిలోని ఉపశాఖల ముఖ్యమైన లక్షణాలను తెలుసుకోవాలి. అకశేరుకాలలో ప్రోటోజోవా, పోరిఫెరా, సిలెంటి రేటా, ప్లాటి హెల్మింథిస్, నిమాటి హెల్మింథిస్, అనెలిడా, ఆర్దోపొడ, మలస్కా, ఇకైనో డెర్మెటాల మౌలిక లక్షణాలను అదే విధంగా జీవులు యొక్క ఆర్థిక ప్రాముఖ్యతను, ముఖ్యమైన జీవుల పేర్లను తెలుసుకోవాలి. గతంలో వీటి నుండి సులభమైన ప్రశ్నలను ఎక్కువగా అడగటం జరిగింది. ప్రశ్నల స్వభావం 1. అమీబియాసిస్ ను కలిగించే ప్రోటోజోవా పరాన్న జీవి? జ. ఎంటమిబా హిస్టాలైటికా 2. బాత్ స్పాంజ్‌లు ఏ విభాగంలో ఉంటాయి? జ. పొలిఫెరా 3. పగడపు దిబ్బలు, ప్రవాళ బిత్తికలు ఏ విభాగంలో ఉంటాయి? జ. సిలెంటిరేటా అకశేరుకాల నుండి ప్రధానంగా వర్గం యొక్క ముఖ్య లక్షణం, ముఖ్యమైన జీవి. ఆర్థిక ప్రాముఖ్యం గల జీవి గురించి ఎక్కువగా ప్రశ్నలు రావడానికి అవకాశముంది. సకశేరుకాలలో చేపలు, ఉభయచరాలు, సరీసృపాలు, పక్షులు, క్షీరదాలు ఉంటాయి. వీటిలో కూడా వర్గం యొక్క ముఖ్యమైన లక్షణా లు, ఆర్థిక ప్రాముఖ్యంగల జీవుల గురించి తెలుసుకోవాలి. మానవుడు క్షీరదాల వర్గానికి చెందినందున క్షీరదాల గురించి క్షుణ్ణంగా తెలుసుకోవాలి. ఇక మానవుని శరీర ధర్మశాస్త్రం పరీక్ష కోణంలో కీలకమైన అంశం. ఇందులో జీర్ణవ్యవస్థ (పోషణ), రక్తప్రసరణ వ్యవస్థ. శ్వాసవ్యవస్థ, నాడీవ్యవస్థ, అస్థిపంజర వ్యవస్థ, హార్మోన్లు, జ్ఞానేంద్రియాలకు సంబంధించిన అంశాల నుండి గత ప్రశ్నాపత్రాలలో ఎక్కువగా ప్రశ్నలు రావడం జరిగింది. ముఖ్యంగా రక్తవర్గాలు, విటమిన్లు, హృదయ సం బంధ వ్యాధులు, కన్ను, చెవి, నిర్మాణం. హార్మోన్ల లోపం వల్ల తలెత్తే సమస్యల గురించి ఎక్కువగా ప్రశ్నలు రావచ్చు. 1. మలేరియా నిర్మూలన కార్యక్రమంలో సాధారణంగా ఉపయోగపడు చేప? జ. గాంబుషియా యఫినిస్ (గూప్-1, 200) 2. చెవి ఎముకల మొత్తం? జ. 6 నగూప్-2, 200) 3. శరీరంలో వార్తలను గ్రహించి, విశ్లేషించి సమన్వయ పరిచే కేంద్రం? జ. మెదడు (జూనియర్ లెక్చరర్స్ - 2007) జంతు శాస్త్రం సిలబస్ విస్తృతంగా ఉన్నప్పటికి గత ప్రశ్నాపత్రాల విశ్లేషణ ఆధారంగా చూస్తే పరీక్ష కోణంలో ముఖ్యమైన అంశాల నుండే ప్రశ్నలు పునరావృత మవుతు న్నాయి. అందువల్ల అభ్యర్ధులు శాస్త్రీయ పద్ధ్దతిలో అధ్యయనం చేయాలి. జంతుశాస్త్రంకు అనుబంధంగా కణజీవ శాస్త్రం, జన్యుశాస్త్రం, ఆవరణ శాస్త్రం లాంటి విభాగాలను కూడా అధ్యయనం చేయడం తప్పనిసరి. వృక్షశాస్త్రంలో ముఖ్యమైన అంశాలు? పరీక్ష కోణంలో వృక్షశాస్త్రం పాత్ర తక్కువగా ఉన్నప్పటికీ జీవుల మనుగడ విషయంలో మాత్రం ఈ శాస్త్రం అత్యంత కీలకమైనది. సమస్త జీవరా శులు జీవించి ఉండటానికి అవసరమైన ఆక్సిజన్‌ను అందించడంతో పాటు జీవులు విడుదల చేసిన కార్బన్ డై అక్సైడ్‌ను మొక్కలు పీల్చుకొని వాతావ రణ సమతుల్యతను కాపాడుతున్నాయి. వృక్ష రాజ్యంలో ప్రధానంగా శైవలాలు శిలీం ధ్రాలు, బ్రయోఫైటా, టెరిడోఫైటా, వివృత బీజాలు, ఆవృత బీజాలు అనే విభాగాలు ఉంటాయి. ఈ విభాగాల ముఖ్యమైన లక్షణాలను అదే విధంగా మొక్కల ఆర్థిక ప్రాముఖ్యతను ఎక్కువగా అడగటం జరుగుతున్నది. వృక్ష రాజ్యంలో అతి చిన్న మొక్కలు శైవలాలు. ఇవి నాచు రూపంలో ఉంటాయి. సముద్రంలో ఉండే గోధుమ రంగు శైవలాలు అయోడిన్‌ను ఉత్పత్తి చేయగా, నాస్తాక్, అనాబినా వంటి నీలి ఆకుపచ్చ, శైవలాలు నత్రజని స్థాపనలో పాల్గొంటా యి. ఇలా ప్రతి విభాగంలో మానవునికి ఉపయోగపడే ముఖ్యమైన మొక్కల గురించి తెలుసుకోవాలి. చాలా మంది అభ్యర్ధులు మొక్కల శాస్త్రీయ నామాలు కూడా గుర్తించుకో వడానికి ఎక్కువ సమయం కేటాయిస్తారు. కాని పరీక్ష కోణంలో అతి ముఖ్యమైన మొక్కల శాస్త్రీయ నామాలు గుర్తుంచుకుంటే సరిపోతుంది. (ఉదా॥ వేప - అజాడిరక్టా ఇండికా, వరి-ఒరైజ సటైవా) ఏయే అంశాలకు ప్రాధాన్యతనివ్వాలి? వృక్ష రాజ్యంలోని వివిధ విభాగాల ముఖ్యమైన లక్షణాలు, ప్రధానంగా వృక్ష శరీర ధర్మశాస్త్రం, ఆర్థిక వృక్ష శాస్త్రం, ఆవరణ శాస్త్రం, కణజీవ శాస్త్రం, జన్యుశాస్త్రం నుండి ఎక్కువ ప్రశ్నలు రావడానికి అవకాశముంది. వృక్ష శరీర ధర్మ శాస్త్రంలో కిరణజన్య సెంెూగక్రియ, మొక్కల పోషణ, శ్వాసక్రియ, జలరవాణా, భాష్పోత్సకం, వృక్ష హర్మోన్ల పాత్ర, ప్రత్యుత్పత్తి వ్యవస్థ నిర్మాణం తదితర అంశాల నుండి గతంలో ప్రశ్నలు ఎక్కువగా పునరావృత మయ్యాయి. ఈ మధ్యకాలంలో జరిగిన పోటీ పరీక్షలలో ఆర్థిక వృక్షశాస్త్రం, పర్యా వరణ శాస్త్రం, అడవులు, కాలుష్య నివారణ, జీవ వైవిధ్య సంరక్షణ వంటి అంశాల గురించి ఎక్కువగా ప్రశ్నలడు గుతున్నారు. ఎలా చదవాలి? వృక్ష శాస్త్రం అనగానే చాలామంది ఇది డ్రై సబ్జెక్ట్ అని, బోర్ సబ్జెక్ట్ అని ఫీలవుతారు. వాస్తవానికి ఇది చాలా ఇంట్రెస్ట్ సబ్జెక్ట్. మానవుని జననం మొదలు మరణం వరకు ప్రతి సంఘటనను మొక్కలు ప్రత్యక్షంగానో, లేదా పరోక్షంగానో ప్రభావితం చేస్తాయి. అందువల్ల మొక్కలు మానవునికి ఉపయోగపడు తున్న తీరును తెలుసుకోగలిగితే వృక్షశాస్త్రం అర్థమయినట్లే. ప్రశ్నలు కూడా ఎక్కువగా డైరెక్ట్‌గా ఉంటాయి. కొన్ని సందర్భాలలో మాత్రం అనువర్తనాలను అడగటం జరుగుతుంది. కాబట్టి మొదట మౌలికాంశాలను అధ్యయనం చేసి మొక్కల ఉపయోగాలను తెలుసుకుంటే వృక్షశాస్త్రంలో దాదాపు అన్ని ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధానాలను గుర్తించవచ్చు. ప్రశ్నల సరళి ఎలా ఉంటుంది? వృక్షశాస్త్రం నుండి వచ్చే 4-6 ప్రశ్నలలో 3 ప్రశ్నలు చాలా సరళంగా ఉంటాయి. మిగతావి అనువర్తన కోణంలో ఉండటానికి అవకాశముంది. అంతే కాకుండా ముఖ్యమైన అంశాల నుండే ప్రశ్నలు ఎక్కువగా పునరావృతమ వుతున్నాయి. కాబట్టి మొదట ఈ అంశాలను క్షుణ్ణంగా అద్యయనం చేయాలి. 1. మొక్కలు నీటిని పోగొట్టుకొను ప్రక్రియ? జ. బాష్పోత్సేకం గ్రూప్-1, 200) 2. మొక్కలోని ఏ భాగం నుంచి మార్ఫిన్ వస్తుంది? జ. పుష్పం నగూప్-2, 2003) 3. భారత కేంద్రీయ వరి పరిశోధనా సంస్థ ఎక్కడ ఉంది? జ. కటక్ (జె.ఎల్. - 2004) వృక్ష శాస్త్రంలో ఆధునిక ధోరణులు గత దశాబ్ద కాలంలో వృక్షశాస్త్రంలో ఆర్థిక వృక్షశాస్త్రం, ఔషధ మొక్కల పాత్ర గణనీయంగా పెరిగింది. అందువల్ల ఈ విభాగం నుండి కనీసం 2 ప్రశ్నలను తప్పనిసరిగా అడుగుతున్నారు. అయితే మానవునికి ఎక్కువగా ఉపయోగపడుతున్న మొక్కల గురించి తెలుసుకుంటే సరిపోతుంది. వేప, ఉసిరి, కలబంద, రావుల్పియా వంటి ఔషధ మొక్కల ఉత్పన్నాలు ఎక్కువగా మార్కెట్‌లోకి వస్తున్నాయి. అందువల్ల వీటి ఉత్పన్నాలు వాటి ఉపయోగాలను తెలుసుకోవాలి. ఇక కూరగాయలు వాటి భాగాలు గురించి తెలుసుకోవాలి. ఉదా : ఉల్లిలో మనం తినే భాగం, రసవంతమైన పత్రపీఠాలు, ఆలుగడ్డలో కాండం, క్యారెట్‌లో వేరు తినదగిన భాగాలు. ఇలా ముఖ్యమైన వాటి గురించి తెలుసుకోవాలి. జీవశాస్త్రంలో ఇతర అంశాలు జీవ శాస్త్రంలో జంతుశాస్త్రం, వృక్షశాస్త్రంతో పాటు సూక్ష్మజీవశాస్త్రం, జీవ రసాయన శాస్త్రం, బయో ఇన్ఫర్మేటిక్స్ వంటి ఇతర శాఖలు కూడా ఉన్నాయి. సూక్ష్మజీవ శాస్త్రంలో బాక్టీరియా వైరస్‌ల గురించి ముఖ్యంగా ఇవి కలిగించే వ్యాధుల గురించి తెలుసుకోవాలి. వ్యాధి శాస్త్రంలో జంతువులు, మొక్కలకు కలిగే వివిధ రకాల వ్యాధులు గురించిన సమాచారం ఉంటుంది. వీటి నుండి కూడా ప్రశ్నలు వస్తాయి. ఎలాంటి పుస్తకాలు చదవాలి? జీవశాస్త్రం గురించి సంపూర్ణ అవగాహన రావాలంటే అభ్యర్ధులు స్టేట్ సిలబస్ 6 నుండి 10వ తరగతి వరకు గల సైన్స్ పుస్తకాలను చదవాలి. వీటితోపాటు పోటీపరీక్షల కొరకు రూపొందించిన ప్రామాణిక పుస్తకాలను కూడా చదవడం మంచిది. చదివిన విషయాలను ముఖ్యంగా పరీక్ష కోణంలో ముఖ్యమైన అంశాలను పాయింట్ల రూపంలో, పట్టికల రూపంలో రాసుకొని ఎక్కువసార్లు రివిజన్ చేయాలి. గత ప్రశ్నాపత్రాలను క్షుణ్ణంగా అధ్యయనం చేసి సైన్స్‌కు సంబంధించిన వర్తమాన విషయాలను ఎప్పటికప్పుడు తెలుసుకుంటూ ఉండాలి. కరెంట్ అఫైర్స్‌లో సైన్స్‌కు సంబంధించిన విషయాలను కూడా సంబంధిత అంశానికి అనుబంధంగా రాసుకుంటే మౌలికాంశాలు, అనువర్తనాలు ఒకే దగ్గర ఉండి, ప్రశ్న ఏ విధంగా అడిగినా సమాధానం గుర్తించడం సులభమవుతుంది. నిరంతర సాధన ఎప్పటికప్పుడు నూతన విషయాలను తెలుసుకోవాలన్న తపన ఉంటే సైన్స్‌లో ఎక్కువ మార్కులు పొందవచ్చు

Scores : Namaste Telangana 

Tags:APPSC, appsc study material free download,appsc study circle,appsc study material for industrial promotion officer,appsc study material